Most are epifaunal (living atop the seabed), but one species (Occultammina profunda), is known to be infaunal; it buries itself up to 6 cm deep into the sediment. The xenophyophores are just the tip of the deep-sea ecosystem iceberg. Xenophyophores Common name: Xenophyophores Scientific name: Xenophyophores Height: 10-20cm Life span: Not known 4 interesting facts:-They are extremely fragile-Single celled-Similar to amoebas-Name mean 'bearer of foreign objects' Powered by Create your … Scientists in the submersible DSV Alvin at a depth of 3,088 metres at the Alaskan continental margin in the Gulf of Alaska collected a spatangoid urchin, Cystochinus loveni, about 5 cm diameter, which was wearing a cloak consisting of over 1,000 protists and other creatures, including 245 living xenophyophores, mainly Psammina species, each 3–6 mm. The previous depth record for xenophyophores was approximately 4.7 miles (7.6 kilometers). As they occur in all the world's oceans and in great numbers, xenophyophores could be indispensable agents in the process of sediment deposition and in maintaining biological diversity in benthic ecosystems. Very little is known about xenophyophore reproduction. The single cell branches and splits into hundreds of tubes which ramify and interconnect into a complex network. How to say Xenophyophores in English? Which species' biological classification translates to the goddess of hairy shellfish and was first discovered in the Pacific Ocean in 2005? How would you answer the question 'What is the world's largest protozoan? The researchers spotted the life forms at depths up to 6.6 miles within the Sirena Deep of the Mariana Trench National Wildlife Refuge. [18] Studies have since confirmed active uptake of food from surrounding sediments using the pseudopodia and using the test to trap particles. A peri-Gondwanan cradle for the trace fossil Paleodictyon. [18], Tendal, O.S. You may think of single-celled organisms as being microscopically small, but these ocean dwellers are a little heftier than that. One group, the xenophyophores, has been suggested to farm bacteria within their tests. Specimens are invariably damaged during sampling, rendering them useless for captive study or cell culture. This page was last edited on 1 January 2021, at 20:49. [43], Different xenophyophore ecomorphs are found in different settings; reticulated or heavily-folded genera such as Reticulammina and Syringammina are more common in areas where the substrate is sloped or near canyon walls, while more fan-shaped forms like Stannophyllum are more common in areas with quieter water and/or lower primary productivity. As benthic particulate feeders, xenophyophores normally sift through the sediments on the sea floor. Species of xenophyophores … (1972) A MONOGRAPH OF THE XENOPHYOPHORIA (Rhizopodea, Protozoa). [10] As of 2015, recent phylogenetic studies suggest that xenophyophores are a specialized group of monothalamous (single-chambered) Foraminifera. These giant protozoans seem to feed in a manner similar to amoebas, enveloping food items with a foot-like structure called a pseudopodium. (Indeed, the manuscript tradition includes Constitution of the Athenians, which is not by Xenophon.) Their glue-like secretions cause silt and strings of their own fecal matter, called stercomes, to build up into masses (called stercomares) on their exteriors. Xenophyophores are marine protozoans, giant single-celled organisms found throughout the world's oceans, but in their greatest numbers on the abyssal plains of the deep ocean. Some xenophyophores—notably Psammina—have compartmentalized tests consisting of multiple chambers.[16]. They were not distributed evenly in the trench — some areas have more and some less. To use all the functions on Chemie.DE please activate JavaScript. Gubbay, S., Baker, M., Bettn, B., Konnecker, G. (2002). First, they represent the largest single-celled organism on Earth. The xenophyophores themselves also play commensal host to a number of organisms—such as isopods (e.g., genus Hebefustis), sipunculan and polychaete worms, nematodes, and harpacticoid copepods—some of which may take up semi-permanent residence within a xenophyophore's test. Gametes form in a specialised part of the granellare that may look like swollen side-branch (in Psammetta) or a stalked bulb (in Cerelasma). Xenophyophores: Giant Single-Celled Sea Creatures The largest single cell in the human body is the egg, which is roughly the size of the period at the end of this sentence. Xenophyophorea is a clade of foraminiferans. Read what you need to know about our industry portal bionity.com. A recent genetic study suggested that the xenophyophores are a specialized group of Foraminifera. In this way, the organisms form structures which project from the sea floor; this characteristic also explains their name, which may be translated from the Greek to mean "bearer of foreign bodies". Brittle stars (Ophiuroidea) also appear to have a relationship with xenophyophores, as they are consistently found directly underneath or on top of the protozoans. [4][24][25][26] They are often found in areas of enhanced organic carbon flux, such as beneath productive surface waters, in sub-marine canyons, in settings with sloped topography (e.g. [30], As of 2017, no positively-identified xenophyophore fossils had been identified. Xenophyophores may be an important part of the benthic ecosystem by virtue of their constant bioturbation of the sediments, providing a habitat for other organisms such as isopods. The great majority of his works were probably written during the last 15 to 20 years of his life, but their chronology has not been decisively established. In 1883, Henry Bowman Brady classified them as primitive Foraminifera. [42], Starfish, monoplacophorans, and molpadiid sea cucumbers have all been observed feeding on xenophyophores; specifically, the monoplacophoran Neopilina galatheae has been proposed as a specialised predator of the group. ", "Paleodictyon nodosum: A living fossil on the deep-sea floor", "Deep-sea benthic megafaunal habitat suitability modelling: A global-scale maximum entropy model for xenophyophores", "Giant protists (xenophyophores) function as fish nurseries", "Intracellular mineral grains in the xenophyophore Nazareammina tenera (Rhizaria, Foraminifera) from the Nazaré Canyon (Portuguese margin, NE Atlantic)", "Xenophyophores (Rhizaria, Foraminifera), including four new species and two new genera, from the western Clarion-Clipperton Zone (abyssal equatorial Pacific)", "The offshore directory: Review of a selection of habitats, communities and species of the north-east Atlantic", "Windows to the deep exploration: Giants of the protozoa", More xenophyophore photos, with a map of their habitat, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xenophyophorea&oldid=997703583, Taxonbars using multiple manual Wikidata items, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Individual waste pellets are referred to as, Xenophyophores also commonly have abundant crystals of. The softness and structure of tests varies from soft and lumpy shapes to fans and complex structures. [11][12][13], A 2013 molecular study using small subunit rDNA found Syringammina and Shinkaiya to form a monophyletic clade closely related to Rhizammina algaeformis. Xenophyophores trap and eat tiny particles by engulfment, as true “amoebas” do. As they occur in all the world's oceans and in great numbers, xenophyophores could be indispensable agents in the process of sediment deposition and in maintaining biological diversity in benthic ecosystems. They were first described as sponges in 1889, then as testate amoeboids, and later as their own phylum of Protista.A recent genetic study suggested that the xenophyophores are a specialized group of Foraminifera. [4][6][27][28] They are not found in areas of hypoxic waters. The selected minerals vary with species, but often include barite, lead and uranium. Xenophyophores were found on 70% of seafloor photographs. This study also suggested that many individual genera are polyphyletic, with similar body shapes convergently evolving multiple times. 1) A xenophyophore is a single, large, polynucleate cell about the size of your hand, with no organ systems. This refers to the sediments, called xenophyae, which are cemented together to construct their tests. A protective, shell-like test is thereby agglutinated around the granellare, which is composed of scavenged minerals and the microscopic skeletal remains of other organisms, such as sponges, radiolarians, and other foraminiferans. [23], Xenophyophores are an important part of the deep sea-floor, as they have been found in all four major ocean basins. b) It has a high metabolic rate and is an active organism [18], Xenophyophores have been found between depths of 500 and 10,600 metres. Everything is contained in a ramose system of tubes called a granellare, itself composed of an organic cement-like substance. Abundant but poorly understood, xenophyophores are delicate organisms with a variable appearance; some may resemble flattened discs, angular four-sided shapes (tetrahedra), or like frilly or spherical sponges. Have each student group prepare: a. For this reason, very little is known of their life history. These researchers suggest that Dickinsonia and relatives are instead stem-bilaterians. The softness and structure of tests varies from soft and lumpy shapes to fans and complex structures. Find out how LUMITOS supports you with online marketing. Many form delicate and elaborate agglutinated tests—shells often made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and other foreign mineral particles glued together with organic cements[17]—that range from a few millimetres to 20 centimetres across. The test builds up as it proliferates, secreting a slimy organic cement. Beyond the production of biflagellate gametes, the reproduction of xenophyophores is still obscure, and the details have not been established by Peeping Tom biologists. [3][4] They are a kind of foraminiferan that extracts minerals from their surroundings and uses them to form an exoskeleton known as a test. Retrieved July 15, 2005. Two cylindrical cores (7 cm diam X 15 cm), col- lected on Dive 1469, were sectioned at 1 cm intervals A number of unique terms are used to refer to anatomical aspects of the group: The protoplasm of xenophyophores contributes less than 1% of the total mass of the organism. Xenophyophores appear to be a significant part of the benthic ecology, with large numbers of organisms living on, in and around the microenvironments created by test aggregations. Members of this class are multinucleate unicellular organisms found on the ocean floor throughout the world's oceans, at depths of 500 to 10,600 metres (1,600 to 34,800 ft). Pronunciation of Xenophyophores with 6 audio pronunciations, 1 meaning, 2 translations and more for Xenophyophores. NOAA Ocean Explorer. Parasitic strategies vary; some act as ectoparasites, using their pseudopodia to steal food from the … Mariana Trench (Marianas Trench), deepest of the world’s deep-sea trenches. Specimens are invariably damaged during sampling, rendering them useless for captive study or cell culture. [31] However, the discovery of C27 sterols associated with the fossils of Dickinsonia cast doubt on this identification, as these sterols are today associated only with animals. They were first described as sponges in 1889, then as testate amoeboids, and later as their own phylum of Protista. Analysis of lipid concentrations within xenophyophores revealed especially high concentrations of bacteria in the stercomata, suggesting that xenophyophores utilise bacteria growing on their waste products in order to supplement their feeding. Local population densities may be as high as 2,000 individuals per 100 square meters, making them dominant organisms in some areas. Gubbay, S., Baker, M., Bettn, B., Konnecker, G. (2002). This growth occurred in phases lasting 2–3 days each; each phase was separated by a resting period of approximately two months. World Foraminifera Database. "The offshore directory: Review of a selection of habitats, communities and species of the north-east Atlantic", pp. Four bizarre new species of giant single-celled organisms are discovered on the seabed three MILES below the surface of the Pacific Ocean Species of xenophyophores were found in the Clarion-Clipper zone near Hawaii Two lived inside fan-shaped or flat structures and one was inside a sponge ball Scientists picked up one inside a mudball but […] [7] Later they were placed within the sponges. [18], The diet and feeding ecology of xenophyophores was long the subject of speculation; the fragile tests and deepwater habitat of the group makes in vivo observation difficult. The creatures are called xenophyophores, and scientists from the Scripps Institute of Oceanography at UC San Diego spotted them in the cold, crushing … Many form delicate and elaborate agglutinated tests—shells often made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and other foreign mineral particles glued together with organic cements —that range from a few millimetres to 20 centimetres across. In: 22 Jornadas de Paleontologia, Comunicaciones, 132-134", "Piaeodicton: The Traces of Infaunal Xenophyophores? They were first described by Henry Bowman Brady in 1883. Suspension feeding is also common in the group, and at least some species can take advantage of dissolved organic carbon. Xenophyophores are essentially lumps of viscous fluid called cytoplasm containing numerous nuclei distributed evenly throughout. [3][4][29], Xenophyophore densities are highest on soft sediments; however, they may still be found on rocky substrates including basalts, canyon walls, and manganese crusts. Xenophyophores are unicellular, but have many nuclei. The test builds up as it proliferates, secreting a slimy organic cement. Based on this, you which aspects of its physiology are inevitable? These growth phases were approximately synchronous between specimens, but it is unclear if this is biologically or developmentally controlled; some evidence suggests the synchrony may have been due to chance. They are abundant on abyssal plains, and in some regions are the dominant species. Xenophyophores are difficult to study due to their extreme fragility. Levin (1994). [41] Research has shown that areas dominated by xenophyophores have 3–4 times the number of benthic crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs than equivalent areas that lack xenophyophores. Six additional xenophyophores were recovered in cylindrical pushcores (7 cm diam X 15 cm). There are approximately 42 recognized species in 13 genera and 2 orders; one of which, Syringammina fragillissima, is among the largest known protozoans at a maximum 20 centimetres in diameter. Xenophyophores are difficult to study due to their extreme fragility. Fifteen genera and 75 species have been described, varying widely in size. Xenophyophores are single celled organisms. Local environmental conditions—such as current direction and speed—may play a part in influencing these forms. 74–77. [6], The name Xenophyophora means "bearer of foreign bodies", from the Greek. [15], It has been suggested that the mysterious vendozoans of the Ediacaran period represent fossil xenophyophores. [8] In the beginning of the 20th century they were considered an independent class of Rhizopoda,[9] and later as a new eukaryotic phylum of Protista. Xenophyophores are large agglutinated protists con-fined to deep-sea habitats (Tendal, 1972). The xenophyophores themselves also play commensal host to a number of organisms—such as isopods (e.g., genus Hebefustis), sipunculan and polychaete worms, nematodes, and harpacticoid copepods—some of which may take up semi-permanent residence within a xenophyophore's test. Most are epifaunal (living atop the seabed), but one species (Occultammina profunda), is known to be infaunal; it buries itself up to 6 centimetres (2.4 in) deep into the sediment. '. The location of the initial plasma can sometimes be pointed out in adult xenophyophores. For this reason, very little is known of their life history. The image may be one of a large 20-cm wide Xenophyophore. The researchers found the life-forms at depths of up to 6.6 miles (10.6 kilometers) within the Sirena Deep. To use all functions of this page, please activate cookies in your browser. Species of this group are morphologically variable, but the general structural pattern includes a test enclosing a branching system of organic tubules together with masses of waste material. Monothalamea. Hayward, B.W. Xenophyophores have been found to be "ecosystem engineers", providing habitat and serving as traps for organic particles, increasing diversity in the surrounding area. A written report on xenophyophores that will (at the minimum) include • Explanation of what xenophyophores are • Description of xenophyophores • Explanation of how xenophyophores feed These amoeboid structures are also sometimes found inside the granellare. Xenophyophores are one of the most common types of large organism found on the CCZ abyssal plains, so the name of the second genus was chosen … Early propositions included suspension feeding, bacterial farming, deposit feeding, and trapping particulate matter inside the test. They excrete a slimy substance whilst feeding; in locations with a dense population of xenophyophores, such as at the bottoms of oceanic trenches, this slime may cover large areas. Small subunit ribosomal DNA suggests that the xenophyophorean Syringamma corbicula is a foraminiferan. [38] Modern examples of Paleodictyon have been discovered; however, no evidence of tests, stercomares, grannelares, or xenophyophore DNA was found, and the trace may alternately represent a burrow or a glass sponge. ; Le Coze, F.; Gross, O. Retrieved July 15, 2005. The rapid rate of growth observed suggests that xenophyophores may not be as long-lived as previously hypothesised. The single cell branches and splits into hundreds of tubes which ramify and interconnect into a complex network. Xenophyophores are single celled organisms. Research has shown that areas dominated by xenophyophores have 3-4 times the number of benthic crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs than equivalent areas which lack xenophyophores. [18], They select certain minerals and elements from their environment that are included in its tests and cytoplasm, or concentrated in excretions. The expedition also found the deepest jellyfish observed to date, as well as other mysterious animals. All materi- al from the xenophyophore tests was sieved through a 63 pm screen in the laboratory. Growth is episodic; one observational study taking place over a period of eight months saw a three-to-tenfold growth in specimens of Reticulammina labyrinthica. a) It has a convoluted body shape to maximize its surface for gas exchange and removal of metabolic wastes. Xenophyophore may therefore encompass several different trophic traits. They can also function as nurseries for fish; snailfish have been found to lay eggs in the shelter of the xenophyophore test. In some species this is denoted by a sharp change in the type of xenophyae; in others, the juvenile is regular and the adult is irregular; still others flip this pattern, so that the juvenile is irregular and the adult is regular.[4]. It is also possible that the amoeboid stage represents amoeboid gametes, found in other foraminifera. [20], Studies have found unusually high concentrations of radioactive nuclides in xenophyophores; this was first reported in Occultammina but has since been found to be true of many other xenophyophore species from different parts of the ocean.[21][22]. Xenophyophores are single cell animals called Protists. A. anglerfish B. tripod fish C. xenophyophore D. yeti crab [5] The largest, Syringammina fragilissima, is among the largest known coenocytes, reaching up to 20 centimetres (8 in) in diameter. © 1997-2021 LUMITOS AG, All rights reserved, https://www.bionity.com/en/encyclopedia/Xenophyophore.html, Your browser is not current. [33][34] A 2011 study that examined growth and development of Palaeopascichnus concluded it was likely not a xenophyophore. Xenophyophores are the largest foraminifera (about 25cm in size) making tests, and are widely distributed at high density on the deep-sea floor.1–4) Their large, thick, morphologically complex tests provide a substrate and source of food for smaller species, and can contribute to Find out more about the company LUMITOS and our team. seamounts, abyssal hills) and on continental slopes. xenophyophore was collected within a single subcore. [38] Supporting this notion is the similar abyssal habitat of living xenophyophores to the inferred habitat of fossil graphoglyptids; however, the large size (up to 0.5m) and regularity of many graphoglyptids as well as the apparent absence of xenophyae in their fossils casts doubt on the possibility. Among several possible explanations for the urchin's behaviour, perhaps the most likely are chemical camouflage and weighing itself down to avoid being moved in currents. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=744106, "Giant amoebas discovered in deepest ocean trench", "Five new species and two new genera of xenophyophores (Foraminifera: Rhizaria) from part of the abyssal equatorial Pacific licensed for polymetallic nodule exploration", "Small subunit ribosomal DNA suggests that the xenophyophorean Syringammina corbicula isa Foraminiferan", "A new genus of xenophyophores (Foraminifera) from Japan Trench: morphological description, molecular phylogeny and elemental analysis", "New supraordinal classification of Foraminifera: Molecules meet morphology", "Giant protists (xenophyophores, Foraminifera) are exceptionally diverse in parts of the abyssal eastern Pacific licensed for polymetallic nodule exploration", "Testing the protozoan hypothesis for Ediacaran fossils: a developmental analysis of Palaeopascichnus", "Possible Roles for Xenophyophores in Deep-Sea Carbon Cycling", "Micro-CT 3D imaging reveals the internal structure of three abyssal xenophyophore species (Protista, Foraminifera) from the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean", "High levels of natural radionuclides in a deep-sea infaunal xenophyophore", "Natural 226Ra and 232Th radionuclides in xenophyophores of the Pacific Ocean", "Direct observation of episodic growth in an abyssal xenophyophore (Protista)", "Interactions between metazoans and large, agglutinating protozoans: implications for the community structure of deep-sea benthos", "Synoptic checklist and bibliography of the Xenophyophorea (Protista), with a zoogeopgraphical survey of the group", "Xenophyophoria (Rhizopoda, Protozoa) in bottom photographs from the bathyal and abyssal NE Atlantic", "Effect of giant protozoans (class: Xenophyophorea) on deep-seamount benthos", "A new infaunal xenophyophore (xenophyophorea, protozoa) with notes on its ecology and possible trace fossil analogs", "Use of lipids to study the trophic ecology of deep-sea xenophyophores", "Ancient steroids establish the Ediacaran fossil Dickinsonia as one of the earliest animals", "Ediacaran biota: The dawn of animal life in the shadow of giant protists", "Benkovac Stone (Eocene, Croatia): a deep-sea Plattenkalk? A few foram species are parasitic, infecting sponges, molluscs, corals, or even other foraminifera. [14] Further molecular evidence has confirmed the monophyly of xenophyophores. (2019). [16] A 2014 study of Pteridinum reached similar conclusions. Juveniles have occasionally been found in association with adults; in Psametta they are horseshoe-shaped and already covered in xenophyae. [32] Other ediacaran fossils, such as Palaeopascichnus Intrites, Yelovichnus, and Neonereites have been posited as fossil xenophyophores and linked to the Eocene fossil Benkovacina. 3. Microsoft Internet Explorer 6.0 does not support some functions on Chemie.DE. Brittle stars (Ophiuroidea) also appear to have some sort of relationship with xenophyophores, as they are consistently found directly underneath or on top of the protozoans. It stretches for more than 1,580 miles (2,540 km) with a mean width of 43 miles (69 km) and is part of the western Pacific system of oceanic trenches coinciding with subduction zones. The largest of them is Syringammina fragillissima at a maximum of 20cm in diameter. Each episode of growth occurred in three phases: first, the base becomes wider and flatter, causing the surface texture to become smoother; then, the original shape of the organism is regained (albeit larger); and finally, the surface texture is rebuilt. However, analysis of the latter found neither barite crystals nor evidence of agglutinated foraminifera in the wall. Xenophyophores are noteworthy for their size, - individual cells often measure in at 10cm (4inch) - their extreme abundance on the seafloor and their role as hosts for a variety of organisms. Xenophyophores - the giants of the protozoan world. According to Bartlett, these cells host a wide variety of other organisms and essentially give scientists a new habitat to study. This is most likely the Xenophyophore Syringammina sp. These are the largest structures produced by a single cell. They live on and in soft sediments and on hard substrates from upper bathyal to extreme hadal depths (Tendal, 1996; Gallo et al., 2013) and are abundant in abyssal plain [40], Local population densities may be as high as 2,000 individuals per 100 square metres (1,100 sq ft), making them dominant organisms in some areas. Xenophon produced a large body of work, all of which survives to the present day. ", "Three-dimensional microCT analysis of the Ediacara fossil Pteridinium simplex sheds new light on its ecology and phylogenetic affinity", "Jensen, S. and Palacios, T. 2006. [18], Despite this abundance, the relatively low amount of protoplasm per unit of test means that xenophyophores often contribute little to total biomass.[18]. [35], Some researchers have suggested that the enigmatic graphoglyptids, known from the early Cambrian through recent times, could represent the remains of xenophyophores,[36][37] and noted the similarity of the extant xenophyophore Occultammina to the fossil. [39], Certain Carboniferous fossils have been suggested to represent the remains of xenophyophores due to the concentration of barium within the fossils as well as supposed morphological similarity; however, the barium content was later determined to be due to diagenetic alteration of the material and the morphology of the specimen instead supported an algal affinity. "Windows to the deep exploration: Giants of the protozoa", p. 2. and excrete a slimy substance; in locations with a dense population of xenophyophores, such as at the bottoms of oceanic trenches, this slime may cover large areas. Xenophyophores are single-celled animals that live exclusively in deep-sea habitats, but they've never been seen in areas this deep before--some 6.6 … xenophyophores, and develop their own hypotheses about the role of these organisms in deep-sea bottom communities. Xenophyophores are marine protozoans, giant single-celled organisms found throughout the world's oceans, but in their greatest numbers on the abyssal plains of the deep ocean. compiled by Comments to the author sent via our contacts page quoting page url plus : ('dwalker','')">Dave Walker, UK. 10cm to 25cm single-celled 'monsters' live in the depths of our oceans! Xenophyophores are unicellular, but have many nuclei. Your browser does not support JavaScript. Four new species of single-cell organisms have been discovered in the depths of the Pacific. [19] The granellare of Shinkaiya have been found to contain high concentrations of mercury. Four bizarre new species of giant single-celled organisms are discovered on the seabed three MILES below the surface of the Pacific Ocean. Read … [15], Historically xenophyophores have been divided into the agglutinated psamminida and the flexible, proteinaceous stannomida. The fragility of the xenophyophores suggests that the urchin either very carefully collected them, or that they settled and grew there. Their abundance averaged 1600 specimens per hectare, whereas abundance of the next common group, … Gametes are reportedly about 20 µm in diameter, with two flagella; after this, an amoeba-like stage seems to be present. (2003). Pawlowski J, Holzmann M, Fahrni J, Richardson SL. However, the accumulation of stercomata, which consist mainly of small mineral grains, suggests that all xenophyophores collect fine sediment particles, either from the water column, from nodule surfaces, or directly from the sediment. As benthic deposit feeders, xenophyophores tirelessly root through the muddy sediments on the sea floor. With an accout for my.bionity.com you can always see everything at a glance – and you can configure your own website and individual newsletter. #22 Xenophyophore (Domain: Eukaryota, Kingdom Rhizaria, Phylum Foraminifera, Class Xenophyophorea) Xenophyophores come in at 22 for several reasons. It is assumed that an alternation of generations takes place, as in other foraminifera; however, this has not been confirmed. [16] However, cladistic analyses based on molecular data have suggested a high amount of homoplasy, and that the division between psamminids and stannomids is not well supported.[15].

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